500 · 1,000 · 2,000 (1 SM, clear of clouds in pattern within ½ SM of runway)
> 1,200 AGL, < 10,000 MSL — day
1 SM
500 · 1,000 · 2,000
> 1,200 AGL, < 10,000 MSL — night
3 SM
500 · 1,000 · 2,000
> 1,200 AGL and ≥ 10,000 MSL
5 SM
1,000 · 1,000 · 1 SM
B/C/D/E surface area: no VFR under a ceiling < 1,000 ft, and ground visibility ≥ 3 SM to take off, land or enter the pattern (91.155(c),(d)) — otherwise Special VFR (91.157): clear of clouds, 1 SM; at night only with instrument rating + IFR airplane.
Airspace entry & equipment
Entry
Equipment
A
IFR clearance
IFR, Mode C, ADS-B
B
“Cleared into Class B”
2-way radio, Mode C, ADS-B (30 NM veil)
C
2-way comms (ATC uses your call sign)
2-way radio, Mode C, ADS-B (and above)
D
2-way comms
2-way radio
E/G
None (VFR)
ADS-B/Mode C ≥ 10,000 MSL (not ≤ 2,500 AGL)
Speeds (91.117): 250 KIAS < 10,000 MSL · 200 KIAS ≤ 2,500 AGL within 4 NM of Class C/D primary · 200 KIAS under a Class B shelf / VFR corridor.
Day — ATOMATOFLAMES: Airspeed ind · Tachometer · Oil pressure · Manifold pressure (altitude engine) · Altimeter · Temp gauge (liquid-cooled) · Oil temp · Fuel gauge · Landing gear position (retractable) · Anticollision lights (certificated after Mar 11, 1996) · Magnetic compass · ELT · Safety belts / shoulder harnesses.
Night — add FLAPS: Fuses (spare set) · Landing light (if for hire) · Anticollision lights · Position lights · Source of electrical power.
Cross-country planning — order of calculations PHAK Ch 16
Route. Draw the course, pick checkpoints, measure each leg's true course (TC) at a meridian near the middle of the leg, and its distance in NM.
Magnetic course → altitude. MC = TC − east / + west variation. Above 3,000 ft AGL fly odd thousands + 500 for MC 0–179°, even + 500 for 180–359°; clear terrain (MEF), obstacles and airspace. 91.159
Winds aloft for that altitude and time: FB direction is true, speed in knots, temperature °C; interpolate between levels. AWH 27.2
Performance from the POH with pressure altitude and temperature: climb time, fuel and distance; cruise RPM, TAS and fuel flow. PHAK Ch 11
Wind triangle for each leg (E6B or the formulas): WCA and groundspeed. Keep it all in true: TC, FB winds, TAS.
Headings: TH = TC ± WCA (+ for wind from the right) → MH = TH − east / + west variation → CH = MH ± deviation (compass card).
Time per leg = distance ÷ GS × 60 min. The first leg includes the climb.
Fuel per leg = time × GPH; add start, taxi and run-up, and the climb. Total it.
Reserve: total + 30 min (day) or 45 min (night) at cruise must fit within usable fuel. 91.151
Weight & balance at takeoff and at landing (fuel burned × 6 lb/gal).
Takeoff and landing distances at each airport for its density altitude, wind and runway. 91.103
Brief, file, fly: weather, NOTAMs, TFRs; file and activate the flight plan. In the air, start a timer, note checkpoint times, actual GS = distance ÷ time, then revise ETAs and fuel.
Pressure altitude
PA = elevation + (29.92 − altimeter) × 1,000 ft
Standard temperature
ISA = 15 °C − 2 °C per 1,000 ft of PA
Density altitude
DA ≈ PA + 120 × (OAT − ISA)
True airspeed
TAS ≈ CAS + 2% per 1,000 ft (rule of thumb)
Wind components
crosswind = W × sin θ, headwind = W × cos θ θ = angle between wind and course; sin 30° = ½, 45° ≈ 0.7, 60° ≈ 0.9
Wind correction
WCA ≈ crosswind × 60 ÷ TAS (degrees, into the wind)
Groundspeed
GS ≈ TAS − headwind (or + tailwind)
Headings
TH = TC ± WCA · MH = TH − E / + W var · CH = MH ± dev
Time
min = NM ÷ GS × 60
Fuel
gal = min ÷ 60 × GPH · 100LL ≈ 6 lb/gal
Off course (rule of 60)
to parallel: NM off ÷ NM flown × 60° · to regain: add NM off ÷ NM to go × 60°
Start descent
altitude to lose ÷ fpm × GS ÷ 60 = NM before
Example: TC 040°, 55 NM, wind 010° at 20 kt, TAS 110 kt, variation 15° E, compass card +2°, 8.5 GPH. The wind is 30° off the nose from the left: crosswind 20 × ½ = 10 kt, headwind 20 × 0.87 ≈ 17 kt. WCA ≈ 10 × 60 ÷ 110 ≈ 5° left → TH 035° → MH 020° → CH 022°. GS ≈ 110 − 17 = 93 kt → 55 ÷ 93 × 60 ≈ 36 min → 36 ÷ 60 × 8.5 ≈ 5.1 gal.
FB winds aloft (DDff+TT, true, kt, °C): no wind within 1,500 ft and no temp within 2,500 ft of station elevation; 9900 = light & variable; direction + 50 means add 100 kt (7545 = 250° at 145 kt); no minus sign above 24,000 ft. AWH 27.2
G-AIRMET: Sierra IFR/mtn obsc · Tango turb/wind/LLWS · Zulu icing/FZLVL.
Cloud base ≈ (T − Td °C) ÷ 2.5 × 1,000 ft AGL.
Standard: 29.92 inHg = 1013.2 mb. Isobars (pressure) every 4 mb; isogonic lines = magnetic variation.
G-AIRMET 6 h · SIGMET ≤ 4 h · Convective SIGMET H+55, 2 h (AIM: 1 h), hail ≥ ¾ in · CWA ≤ 2 h.
DA ≈ PA + 120 × (OAT − ISA); PA = elev + (29.92 − alt) × 1,000.
±100 feet marks a graded tolerance in the skills elements.
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About
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Getting ready for a checkride means working through the ACS, the regulations, the AIM and several FAA handbooks, and it’s easy to feel buried. Checkride Binder lays out every task and element of the Private Pilot (Airplane) ACS and links each one to the official source that answers it, so you can see what the checkride covers and where each answer is written.
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